Clothing Colours in the Ancient World: Roman & Jewish Perspectives

In the ancient Roman (and Jewish) world, clothing was never just about utility or aesthetics. Colours, in particular, formed a visual language that communicated rank, wealth, morality, and political allegiance. From the vivid depths of imperial purple to the subdued hues of mourning, the colours people wore revealed much about their place within society. This is a complex topic, so I have tried to keep it relatively straightforward, comparing Roman versus Jewish styles by social class/ function with the aim of helping you paint your miniatures.

Our understanding of the colours worn by Jews in the Roman period, particularly between the first century BC and the second century AD, is based on a combination of archaeological finds, biblical and rabbinic texts, and comparative historical analysis. While direct evidence is limited, particularly in terms of preserved textiles, there is enough material to construct a reasonably detailed picture. Undoubtedly, many Jews, even in Judaea, would have looked almost indistinguishable from their Roman counterparts, however, we should not over-emphasise their similarity.

The meaning of colours

Roman tunics were typically dyed or striped to indicate social status. The tunica laticlavia, with a broad purple stripe, marked out senators, while the equestrian class wore a similar garment with a narrower band, known as the tunica angusticlavia. Cloaks such as the palla and pallium were also made in a range of colours, sometimes brightly dyed, and were worn over the tunic by both men and women depending on the occasion and the season.

In Roman society colour also played a role in gender norms and moral perception. Women who wore excessively bright or richly dyed clothing, especially garments incorporating purple, were sometimes criticised by moralists and satirists. Writers like Juvenal and Seneca used female dress as a symbol of moral decline, suggesting that colour could signal more than taste or wealth—it could reflect perceived virtue or vice. Meanwhile, black clothing carried strong cultural associations with grief and solemnity. In literature, black clothing is often linked with death, stoicism, or philosophical seriousness, and its use in mourning was widespread and enduring.

In a Jewish context religious law and tradition added additional layers of meaning to certain colours. One of the most significant examples is the commandment in the Book of Numbers (15:38) to include a tekhelet (blue or blue-purple) thread in the fringes, or tzitzit, of garments. This colour was likely derived from a sea snail species (Murex trunculus), the same source as the famous Tyrian purple. The production of tekhelet was difficult and expensive, and its use appears to have declined after the destruction of the Second Temple. Nevertheless, rabbinic texts continued to discuss the significance of this blue thread as a sacred marker of Jewish identity.

Outside the context of priestly or ritual clothing, ordinary Jewish dress was not strictly regulated in terms of colour. Rabbinic sources focus more on issues of modesty and fabric type than on hue. However, some rabbinic discussions suggest social and moral connotations associated with certain colours. For example, red garments were at times viewed with suspicion, particularly when worn by women, due to associations with Roman or pagan styles. On the other hand, women’s clothing could include a wider range of colours than men’s, including greens, oranges, and soft pinks, especially among wealthier individuals.

The Elites

The most prestigious dye in the Roman period was Tyrian purple, produced from the secretions of murex sea snails. These molluscs, found along the eastern Mediterranean coast, yielded only minute quantities of dye, making the production process extremely expensive. Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History, described in detail the labour involved in collecting thousands of shellfish for even a small amount of dye. The result was a brilliant purple with rich red undertones that resisted fading, and which became closely associated with political power and religious authority.

Tyrian purple was worn in carefully prescribed contexts. The toga praetexta, a white toga edged with purple, was worn by senators, magistrates, and freeborn boys. Generals granted a triumph donned the toga picta, dyed entirely purple and embroidered with gold thread. As Rome moved from republic to empire, purple came to symbolise the imperial office itself. Laws increasingly restricted its use to the emperor and his immediate circle, with infractions sometimes punished severely. By the time of Diocletian in the late third century, the colour had been fully absorbed into the visual identity of the emperor.

Scarlet and other vivid reds held their own significance to Romans. Red dyes were primarily extracted from the kermes insect, which produced a strong and lasting crimson colour. This dye was used in military cloaks, particularly the paludamentum worn by commanders, and in the garments of certain civic officials. Red signified vigour, dignity, and martial prowess. More affordable reds, created using madder root, were common among the wider population, and appear frequently in textiles and wall paintings from the Roman provinces.

Likewise, red was important to Jewish elites as well. Temple priests wore more elaborate garments, in accordance with the prescriptions in the Book of Exodus. Their vestments incorporated blue-purple, scarlet red, white linen, and sometimes gold. These colours, associated with purity and sanctity, reflected the priestly role and the elevated status of temple ritual. The scarlet red dye, known in Hebrew as tola’at shani, came from a species of scale insect and was highly valued for its vivid hue and ritual importance.

The Middling Sort

Other colours were widely used but varied in availability and social association. Yellow, for example, could be produced from saffron, which was costly and reserved for ceremonial use such as bridal veils. More accessible yellow tones were made using plants like weld or reseda. Blue and green were obtained from woad, indigo, and verdigris, and could be worn in everyday garments or combined to create colours resembling purple, often as a more affordable imitation. Pliny notes how some dyers used these methods to imitate the elite hues more cheaply, although such practices were often looked down upon.

The Poor

In a Roman context, subtle shades like brown, black, and grey were easily obtained from natural sources such as walnut husks and iron-based mordants. These colours were worn by labourers, travellers, and mourners. Likewise, archaeological discoveries at sites such as Masada and the Cave of Letters have revealed garments made from linen and wool. These textiles were usually undyed or dyed with locally available plant-based pigments. As a result, the dominant colours were natural tones, including off-white, beige, light brown, grey, and occasionally darker shades such as black. These muted colours were typical among the rural and urban working populations, and would have been practical as well as economical. As one would expect given technological limitations, the poorest strata of Roman and Jewish society thus looked fairly similar.

Conclusion

The Roman state was acutely aware of the messages clothing could send, and sought to regulate the use of colour through sumptuary laws. These laws limited the wearing of certain dyes or garments to specific ranks or occasions, helping to maintain visible distinctions between classes. Clothing was a form of public language, and colour was its most immediate expression. Colour was not simply decoration. It was a symbol of status, a medium of control, and a means of performing identity within the complex social fabric of the Roman world.

Although similar in many ways, the colours worn by Jews in the Roman era reflect a combination of practical limitations, religious prescriptions, and broader Mediterranean clothing trends. Most individuals wore undyed or simply dyed garments in subdued tones, but distinctive colours were used in specific religious contexts. The use of tekhelet in the fringes of garments and the richly coloured clothing of the priestly class are two particularly well-attested examples of colour symbolism in Jewish dress during this period. Although few dyed fabrics have survived from Jewish contexts, the evidence drawn from textual and archaeological sources offers a meaningful picture of how colour functioned in daily and ritual life. Clothing, including its colour, was not only a matter of utility or fashion, but also a medium through which Jewish communities expressed identity, piety, and social distinction within the broader Roman world.